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I. Consequences drive behavior ("The law of
effect")
A. By definition, positive reinforcement
increases behavior. Specifically, positive reinforcement is a stimulus that is
added ("positive") to the environment after the behavior and
increases
("reinforces") the behavior.
1. Examples:
a. Food is given to a rat after it presses a bar and that rat increases its barpressing behavior
b. Money is paid to a child for washing dishes; the
child washes more dishes.
2. Implications:
a. We may reinforce unwanted behavior by unintentionally
rewarding it (e.g.,
being nice to mean people, laughing when being teased),
providing a good tip for bad service, giving bonuses for profits that are obtained by cheating).
b. We may think we are reinforcing behavior when we are not.
The desired behavior might not increase because our "reinforcer" is not valued (e.g.,
the target does not really like our praise or need our money), we are
not rewarding a specific behavior (e.g., we try
to reinforce a positive attitude or an outcome such as grades or sales),
or the reward comes too long after the behavior to be effective.
B. Timing is important: To be effective,
rewards should be immediate. Immediate rewards increase behavior because
they are good at
1. Teaching individuals which responses
are rewarded ("so that's what I'm
supposed to do")
2. Motivating individuals. Implications:
a. We often do not do what we "should" do because the rewards
are too delayed.
b. We do things that are not very rewarding but give us
immediate rewards.
C. Punishment is not as useful as people
think.
1. Why people think punishment is effective.
a. By definition, it works. Definition of punishment:
b. Short term effects.
c. Regression towards the mean.
2. Why punishment is often not effective.
a. Punishment is often delayed.
Ex:
In the U.S., the average time between sentencing and execution is more than 10 years.
b. Punishment is often too weak to be effective.
Ex:
In some states, the fine for a car hitting and hurting a motorist is under 50 dollars.
c. Punishment is often avoided.
Ex:
People lie to avoid punishment.
d. "Punishment" may be positive reinforcement.
Ex:
Neither being suspended from school nor
being yelled at by a teacher are viewed as punishment by all students.
3. Punishment has side effects
a. "Punishee" may experience anger and retaliate
b. "Punishee" may be afraid and confused, especially because
punishment does not tell the punisher what to do.
c. Punishment does not tell the punishee what to do.
d. Due to classical conditioning, punishment may lead to
Dislike of punisher
Dislike of anything associated with the punishment (e.g., a person punished at work may
learn to dislike the workplace or even the work itself
.
II. Schedules of reinforcement matter
A. Continuous schedules differ from partial
schedules.
1. Continuous schedules: Every correct response is
reinforced.
2. Partial schedules: Not all correct responses are
reinforced.
Types of partial schedules (to see examples of these schedules and to
understand these schedules, go to our demonstration of
schedules)
a. Fixed ratio (FR)schedules: Reinforcement is given after a
certain number of correct responses have been made. In an FR 2 schedule,
every 2nd correct response is rewarded; in an FR 10 schedule, every
10th response is rewarded.
b. Variable ratio (VR) schedules: Reinforcement is given, on
average, after a certain number of correct responses have been made. In
a VR 2 schedule, 20 correct responses would usually result in 10
rewards--but not always-- and the individual being reinforced would not be
able to predict which responses would be followed by a reward.
c. Fixed interval (FI) schedules: Reinforcement is given for
the first response that is made after a fixed time interval. Thus, in an FI
10 second schedule, the individual must wait at least 10 seconds between
rewards.
d. Variable interval (VI) schedules: As in FI schedules,
reinforcement is given for the first response that is made after an interval
of time has passed. Unlike FI schedules, the time interval varies. For
example, in a VI 10 schedule, the interval might be 5 seconds one time and
15 seconds the next.
B. Different schedules have different
effects on learning.
1. Continuous schedules help individuals make the
connection between the response and the reward.
2. Partial schedules are not as good at helping
individuals make the connection between the response and the reward.
C. Different schedules have different
effects on motivation.
1. Partial schedules are more motivating than continuous
schedules. (In continuous schedules, the individual may no longer be
hungry for rewards.)
2. Ratio schedules (because you get more rewards the
more you do) are more motivating than interval schedules.
3. Variable schedules are more motivating than fixed
schedules.
4. Variable ratio schedules can be addictive, as in the case of gambling.
D. Different schedules have different effects
on extinction
1. Behavior reinforced on a continuous schedule may be
quickly extinguished.
2. Behavior reinforced on a partial schedule may be slow
to be extinguished.
3. The fact that behavior reinforced on a partial schedule is typically slower to be extinguished
than behavior on a continuous schedule goes by two names (1) the partial
reinforcement effect and (2) the partial paradox.
III. Negative reinforcement increases behavior
A. Negative reinforcement is similar to but
different from positive reinforcement
1. Like positive reinforcement, it increases behavior.
2. Unlike positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement
comes before the behavior and stops once the behavior is done (e.g., a
parent might nag until the child cleans up)
B. Negative reinforcement is different
from punishment
1. Like punishment, an aversive stimulus is involved.
2. Unlike punishment, negative reinforcement increases
behavior and comes before the behavior.